Singapore English

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Stop consonants

← Previous revision Revision as of 08:14, 2 May 2026 Line 283: Line 283: [[Plosive|Stop consonants]] in Singapore English are usually [[No audible release|not released]] at the end of words, and voiceless stops can be [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] or unaspirated in initial positions—how strongly a stop is aspirated can be determined by its [[place of articulation]], the [[heritage language|heritage]] or home language of the speaker and the level of formality of the conversation. In general, speakers with strong Malay or Tamil accents are less likely to aspirate initial stops, while Chinese Singaporeans are more predisposed to using aspiration.<ref name=educatedsge /><ref name="Bao Zhiming 1998 pp. 152-174" />{{NoteTag|Measurements of [[voice onset time]] indicate that, in initial positions, {{IPA|/k/}} is more likely to be aspirated, or exhibit stronger aspiration{{nbsp}}{{IPA|[kʰ]}} across all major Singaporean racial groups, whereas {{IPA|/t, p/}} are characterised by weaker and even weaker aspiration respectively.<ref name=ng2005>{{cite thesis|year=2005|first=S.|last=Ng|title='Method in the madness?': VOT in Singaporean native languages and English|degree=MA|publisher=[[National University of Singapore]]|url=https://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/14890}}</ref> Out of all the language groups surveyed in the study, Tamil speakers of Singapore English have the lowest average voice onset time measurements for the word-initial lenis stops{{nbsp}}{{IPA|[b d ɡ]}}.<ref name=ng2005 />}}{{NoteTag|Initial, [[Tenuis consonant|unaspirated]] {{IPA|[p˭ t˭ t͡s˭ t͡ʃ˭ k˭]}} are found in loanwords from [[Singaporean Hokkien|Hokkien]] and [[Malay language|Malay]], e.g. [[Kopitiam|''kopitiam'']] {{IPA|[ˈk˭o.p˭i.t˭jäm]}}. Additionally, aspirated {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ t͡sʰ kʰ]}} also appear in Hokkien loanwords, alongside voiced stops.<ref name=ng2005 />}} [[Plosive|Stop consonants]] in Singapore English are usually [[No audible release|not released]] at the end of words, and voiceless stops can be [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] or unaspirated in initial positions—how strongly a stop is aspirated can be determined by its [[place of articulation]], the [[heritage language|heritage]] or home language of the speaker and the level of formality of the conversation. In general, speakers with strong Malay or Tamil accents are less likely to aspirate initial stops, while Chinese Singaporeans are more predisposed to using aspiration.<ref name=educatedsge /><ref name="Bao Zhiming 1998 pp. 152-174" />{{NoteTag|Measurements of [[voice onset time]] indicate that, in initial positions, {{IPA|/k/}} is more likely to be aspirated, or exhibit stronger aspiration{{nbsp}}{{IPA|[kʰ]}} across all major Singaporean racial groups, whereas {{IPA|/t, p/}} are characterised by weaker and even weaker aspiration respectively.<ref name=ng2005>{{cite thesis|year=2005|first=S.|last=Ng|title='Method in the madness?': VOT in Singaporean native languages and English|degree=MA|publisher=[[National University of Singapore]]|url=https://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/14890}}</ref> Out of all the language groups surveyed in the study, Tamil speakers of Singapore English have the lowest average voice onset time measurements for the word-initial lenis stops{{nbsp}}{{IPA|[b d ɡ]}}.<ref name=ng2005 />}}{{NoteTag|Initial, [[Tenuis consonant|unaspirated]] {{IPA|[p˭ t˭ t͡s˭ t͡ʃ˭ k˭]}} are found in loanwords from [[Singaporean Hokkien|Hokkien]] and [[Malay language|Malay]], e.g. [[Kopitiam|''kopitiam'']] {{IPA|[ˈk˭o.p˭i.t˭jäm]}}. Additionally, aspirated {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ t͡sʰ kʰ]}} also appear in Hokkien loanwords, alongside voiced stops.<ref name=ng2005 />}}

Final {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} may show some degree of [[Glottalization#Glottal reinforcement|glottal reinforcement]], final {{IPA|/t, k/}} are also prone to being completely [[Glottalization#Glottal replacement|replaced]] by a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} in fast speech. The use of glottalisation is more common in Malay-accented English.<ref name=hung1996>{{cite journal|first=T. T. N.|last=Hung|title=Towards a phonology of Singapore English|journal=Pan-Asiatic Linguistics: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Languages and Linguistics|year=1996|pages=1429–1440}}</ref> Final {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} may show some degree of [[Glottalization#Glottal reinforcement|glottal reinforcement]], final {{IPA|/t, k/}} are also prone to being completely [[Glottalization#Glottal replacement|replaced]] by a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} in fast speech. The use of glottalisation is more common in Malay-accented English.<ref name=hung1996>{{cite journal|first=T. T. N.|last=Hung|title=Towards a phonology of Singapore English|journal=Pan-Asiatic Linguistics: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Languages and Linguistics|year=1996|pages=1429–1440}}</ref> While it is not conventional to weaken [[Flapping|''t'' and ''d'' into alveolar taps]]{{nbsp}}{{IPA|[ɾ]}} in words like ''little'' and ''ladder'', doing so may convey a higher level of [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|sociolinguistic prestige]].<ref name=lim2004 /><ref name=tanyy2016 /><ref name=lincolntamminga2025>{{cite journal|first1=W. M.|last1=Lincoln|first2=M.|last2=Tamminga|title=Social Evaluation of T-flapping in Singapore English: The Role of Internal Constraints|year=2025|journal=Penn Working Papers in Linguistics|volume=31|issue=2}}</ref> ''T''-flapping has nevertheless been reported at higher incidences in compound numbers (e.g., in ''forty-five'') and across word boundaries (e.g., ''get up'').<ref name=lincolntamminga2025 /><ref>{{cite conference|first1=W. M.|last1=Lincoln|first2=R. L.|last2=Starr|year=2022|title=Variation in Singapore English speakers’ awareness and use of t-flapping|conference=NWAV50}}.</ref>
While it is not conventional to weaken [[Flapping|''t'' and ''d'' into alveolar taps]]{{nbsp}}{{IPA|[ɾ]}} in words like ''little'' and ''ladder'', doing so may convey a higher level of [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|sociolinguistic prestige]].<ref name=lim2004 /><ref name=tanyy2016 /><ref name=lincolntamminga2025>{{cite journal|first1=W. M.|last1=Lincoln|first2=M.|last2=Tamminga|title=Social Evaluation of T-flapping in Singapore English: The Role of Internal Constraints|year=2025|journal=Penn Working Papers in Linguistics|volume=31|issue=2}}</ref> ''T''-flapping has nevertheless been reported at higher incidences in compound numbers (e.g., in ''forty-five'') and across word boundaries (e.g., ''get up'').<ref name=lincolntamminga2025 /><ref>{{cite conference|first1=W. M.|last1=Lincoln|first2=R. L.|last2=Starr|year=2022|title=Variation in Singapore English speakers’ awareness and use of t-flapping|conference=NWAV50}}.</ref>

==== Pronunciation of final "l" ==== ==== Pronunciation of final "l" ====